In 1935, neurophysiologist John Farquhar Fulton presented some shocking new research.
1935年，神经生理学家约翰·法夸尔·富尔顿介绍了一些令人震惊的新研究。
After removing the frontal lobes of two chimps, he found they no longer experienced frustration or anxiety.
在切除两只黑猩猩的额叶后，他发现它们不再感到沮丧或焦虑。
As his research associate noted, it was as if they'd joined a "happiness cult." Admittedly, the surgery had cost Fulton's chimps some cognitive functions.
正如他的研究助理指出的，他们好像加入了“幸福邪教”。诚然，手术使富尔顿的黑猩猩失去了一些认知功能。
But to Portuguese neurologist Egas Moniz, this was a small sacrifice for what seemed to be eternal happiness.
但是对于葡萄牙神经学家埃加斯·莫尼兹来说，这只是为了看似永恒的幸福而做出的微不足道的牺牲。
Moniz believed that replicating this procedure in humans could cure mental illness.
莫尼兹认为，在人体中复制这种手术可以治愈精神疾病。
And it was this therapeutic intention that led to one of the most controversial and destructive medical treatments of the 20th century: the lobotomy.
正是这种治疗意图才导致了一种最具争议和最具破坏性的20世纪的医学疗法：叶切断术。
Today, we know mental illness comes in many forms and emerges for many reasons.
今天，我们知道精神疾病有多种形式，其出现的原因有很多。
But in the early 20th century, these complex conditions weren't clearly delineated, and researchers had various theories about their origins.
但是在20世纪初，这些复杂的病情尚未被明确地界定，研究人员对其起源提出了各种理论。
Moniz believed the symptoms of what we now call depression, OCD, and bipolar disorder stemmed from negative ideas getting fixed in the neural fibers which connect different parts of the brain.
Specifically the thalamus and frontal lobes, which regulate emotion and sensation.
特别是丘脑和额叶，它们负责调节情绪和感觉。
He proposed that severing these fibers could eliminate the associated conditions, which led him to invent the prefrontal lobotomy.
他提出了将这些纤维切断就可以消除相关病情，并由此发明了脑前额叶切除术。
In this procedure, a surgeon would drill into the skull and cut the white matter connecting the prefrontal cortex to the rest of the brain.
在这个手术中，外科医生将钻入头骨，切开连接前额叶皮层和大脑其他部分的白质。
Initially, his peers were skeptical.
最初，他的同行都持有怀疑态度。
Moniz's fundamental theory was already controversial.
莫尼兹的基本理论已经引起了争议。
And psychiatrists advocating for treatments like psychoanalysis criticized this invasive surgical solution.
主张精神分析等治疗的精神科医生们也批评了这种侵入性手术解决方案。
But Moniz was undeterred.
但是莫尼兹并没有气馁。
He lobotomized 38 individuals with conditions including anxiety, schizophrenia, and depression.
他对38人 进行了脑叶切除术，他们均患有焦虑、精神分裂症和抑郁症等疾病。
And his hastily written results reported that two-thirds of these patients had become tranquil, amicable, and free from distressing hallucinations.
然后他匆忙写出的结果显示，这些患者中有三分之二已经变得平静、友善，没有出现令人痛苦的幻觉。
At the time, psychiatrists saw calm behavior as a sign of recovery, so when Moniz brashly declared the treatment a success, his peers agreed.
当时，精神科医生将冷静的行为视为康复的标志，因此，当莫尼兹大胆宣布治疗成功时，他的同行表示了认同。
Newspapers celebrated the surgery; Moniz was awarded the Nobel Prize; and his procedure became especially popular in the US thanks to neurologist Walter Freeman and neurosurgeon James Watts.
As a country that had institutionalized nearly half a million people for mental health reasons, many hoped the new treatment would allow this population to live relatively normal lives.
First, the notion of a "normal life" was determined by this period's restrictive social mores, which had led huge numbers of people to be institutionalized simply because they didn't conform.
So, while many people in these facilities did need medical help, some lobotomy recipients had no mental illness whatsoever.
因此，尽管这些机构中的许多人确实需要医疗帮助，但一些肺叶切除术患者并无任何精神疾病。
Second, the details and timeline of the surgeries' results were unpredictable and inconsistent.
其次，手术结果的细节和时间线既不可预测也不一致。
In 1941, when future US President John F. Kennedy's sister Rosemary underwent a prefrontal lobotomy,
1941年，当未来的美国总统约翰·肯尼迪的姐姐罗斯玛丽在接受前额叶切除术后，
it permanently impaired her ability to speak and walk.
她的语言和行走能力都永久地受损了。
And even when the surgery did help patients manage overwhelming emotions and hallucinations, they often experienced significant side effects.
而且，即使手术帮助患者控制了一些难以承受的情绪和幻觉，它们也经常带来严重的副作用，
These included apathy, abrupt personality changes, and cognitive impairment.
包括冷漠、突然的性格变化和认知障碍。
Tragically, the stigma around mental illness kept people from discussing their negative experiences, so the procedure kept happening.
不幸的是，对精神疾病带来的耻辱感让人们不愿讨论自己的负面经历。于是，这一手术一直在持续进行。
But prefrontal lobotomies required a team of surgeons and specialized equipment, making them out of reach for most patients.
但是前额叶切除术需要一支专业的外科医生团队和专业设备，这使得大多数患者都无法获得治疗。
At least until 1945, when Freeman began developing a simpler and cheaper alternative.
直到1945年，弗里曼开始开发一种更简单、更便宜的替代方案。
In his new transorbital lobotomy, the patient was first rendered unconscious via electroshock therapy.
在他新的经眶额叶切除术中，病人首先通过电击疗法失去知觉。
Then, an ice pick-like instrument was pushed through the thin bone of their eye socket and manipulated to sever the fibers between the thalamus and frontal lobes.
然后，一个类似冰锥的工具被插入眼眶的薄骨层，用来切断神经纤维，这些纤维位于丘脑和额叶之间。
Transorbital lobotomy was intended to be performed by physicians without surgical training in under ten minutes.
经眶脑白质切除术本来是为普通医生定制的，他们没有手术培训也能在不到十分钟内完成手术。
And Freeman proved his procedure's efficiency during a hospital visit, where he performed the surgery 228 times in just 12 days.
弗里曼在一次医院探访时证明了他的手术的高效性—— 短短12天内他做了228次手术。
Transorbital lobotomy was immediately controversial.
经眶脑白质切除术立即引起了争议。
Even Freeman's long-time collaborator James Watts was against making such a consequential surgery quick, dirty, and accessible to amateurs.
But the procedure remained popular throughout the Western world until the 1950s, when tranquilizers began offering a less permanent and more predictable alternative.
By the mid-60s, lobotomies were most often found in science fiction and horror films, where they became a potent metaphor for brutally controlling those who don't fit the norm.
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